Prostate cancer as a multifactorial disorder: an overview of the different sides of disease

Document Type : Narrative Review

Authors

1 Department of Surgical Technology, Paramedic School, Hamedan University of Medical Sciences, Hamedan, Iran

2 Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

3 Department of Reproductive Biology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran

Abstract

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in males and the second leading cause of death after lung cancer. Prostate tumors are sometimes benign, but malignant ones are clinically divided into two categories. The first group, which appears as a mass with no invasion to other tissues, is known as non-invasive tumors. The second group which causes the majority of mortality is known as invasive tumors. If normal cells are not needed, the process of apoptosis occurs. Two critical signalling pathways called mTOR / AKT / PI3K and ERK / MEK / Raf / Ras play a key role in regulating the growth of cancer cells. Typically, the Phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN) protein blocks the PI3K / AKT / MTOR pathway when the cell is ready for apoptosis. In some prostate cancers, the gene makes the PTEN protein mutate, so the PI3K / AKT / MTOR pathway remains active, and the cancer cells lose their apoptotic ability. Thus, gene mutations can be an essential factor in the development of prostate cancer. In this review, different aspects of prostate cancer are evaluated as a multifactorial disorder.

Graphical Abstract

Prostate cancer as a multifactorial disorder: an overview of the different sides of disease

Keywords

References

1. Ismaili A, Yari K, Moradi MT, Sohrabi M, Kahrizi D, Kazemi E, Souri Z. IL-1B (C+ 3954T) gene polymorphism and susceptibility to gastric cancer in the Iranian population. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2015; 16(2): 841-844.
https://doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2015.16.2.841
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
2. Kazemi E, Kahrizi D. Lack of association between gastric cancer and hopq alleles in Helicobacter pylori. Genetika 2016; 48(3): 893-902.
https://doi.org/10.2298/GENSR1603893K
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley   
3. Chughtai B, Forde JC, Thomas DD, Laor L, Hossack T, Woo HH, Te AE, Kaplan SA. Benign prostatic hyperplasia. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2016; 2(1): 1-5.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2016.31
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
4. Wolf AM, Wender RC, Etzioni RB, Thompson IM, D'Amico AV, Volk RJ, Brooks DD, Dash C, Guessous I, Andrews K, DeSantis C. American Cancer Society guideline for the early detection of prostate cancer: update 2010. Cancer J Clin 2010; 60(2): 70-98.
https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.20066
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
5. Croce CM. Oncogenes and cancer. N Engl J Med 2008; 358(5): 502-511.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429279799-8
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
6. Soták M, Sumová A, Pácha J. Cross-talk between the circadian clock and the cell cycle in cancer. Ann Med 2014; 46(4): 221-232.  
https://doi.org/10.3109/07853890.2014.892296
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
7. Sherr CJ. Principles of tumor suppression. Cell 2004; 116(2): 235-246.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(03)01075-4
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
8. Matoba S, Kang JG, Patino WD, Wragg A, Boehm M, Gavrilova O, Hurley PJ, Bunz F, Hwang PM. p53 regulates mitochondrial respiration. Science 2006; 312(5780): 1650-1653.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1126863
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
9. Calin GA, Dumitru CD, Shimizu M, Bichi R, Zupo S, Noch E, Aldler H, Rattan S, Keating M, Rai K, Rassenti L. Frequent deletions and down-regulation of micro-RNA genes miR15 and miR16 at 13q14 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2002; 99(24): 15524-15529.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.242606799
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
10. Volinia S, Calin GA, Liu CG, Ambs S, Cimmino A, Petrocca F, Visone R, Iorio M, Roldo C, Ferracin M, Prueitt RL. A microRNA expression signature of human solid tumors defines cancer gene targets. Proc Nat Acad Sci 2006; 103(7): 2257-2261.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0510565103
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed    PubMed Central
11. Johnson CD, Esquela-Kerscher A, Stefani G, Byrom M, Kelnar K, Ovcharenko D, Wilson M, Wang X, Shelton J, Shingara J, Chin L. The let-7 microRNA represses cell proliferation pathways in human cells. Cancer Res 2007; 67(16): 7713-7722.
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed   
12. Abate-Shen C, Shen MM. Molecular genetics of prostate cancer. Genes Dev 2000; 14(19): 2410-2434.
https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.819500
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
13. Turnham DJ, Bullock N, Dass MS, Staffurth JN, Pearson HB. The PTEN Conundrum: How to Target PTEN-Deficient Prostate Cancer. Cells 2020; 9(11): 2342.
https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9112342
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed    PubMed Central
14. Chen H, Zhou L, Wu X, Li R, Wen J, Sha J, Wen X. The PI3K/AKT pathway in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer. Front Biosci. 2016; 21: 1084-1091.
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
15. Kumar VL, Majumder PK. Prostate gland: structure, functions and regulation. Int Urol Nephrol 1995; 27(3): 231-243.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02564756
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
16. Crawford ED. Understanding the epidemiology, natural history, and key pathways involved in prostate cancer. Urology 2009; 73(5): S4-S10.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2009.03.001
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
17. Fair WR, Couch J, Wehner N. Prostatic antibacterial factor identity and significance. Urology 1976; 7(2): 169-177.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-4295(76)90305-8
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
18. Testa U, Castelli G, Pelosi E. Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying prostate cancer development: therapeutic implications. Medicines 2019; 6(3): 82.
https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines6030082
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed    PubMed Central
19. Bullock MJ, Srigley JR, Klotz LH, Goldenberg SL. Pathologic effects of neoadjuvant cyproterone acetate on nonneoplastic prostate, prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia, and adenocarcinoma: a detailed analysis of radical prostatectomy specimens from a randomized trial. Am J Surg Pathol 2002; 26(11): 1400-1413.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00000478-200211000-00002
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
20. Brawer MK, Peehl DM, Stamey TA, Bostwick DG. Keratin immunoreactivity in the benign and neoplastic human prostate. Cancer Res 1985; 45(8): 3663-3667.
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
21. Lagiou P, Mantzoros CS, Tzonou A, Signorello LB, Lipworth L, Trichopoulos D. Serum steroids in relation to benign prostatic hyperplasia. Oncology 1997; 54(6): 497-501.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000227609
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
22. Kalejaiye O, Speakman MJ. Management of acute and chronic retention in men. european urology supplements. 2009; 8(6): 523-529.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eursup.2009.02.002
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley   
23. Hollas W, Hoosein N, Chung L, Mazar A, Henkin J, Kariko K, Barnathan ES, Boyd D. Expression of urokinase and its receptor in invasive and non-invasive prostate cancer cell lines. Thromb Haemost 1992; 68(12): 662-666.
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1646340
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
24. Desouza NM, Riches SF, Vanas NJ, Morgan VA, Ashley SA, Fisher C, Payne GS, Parker C. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging: a potential non-invasive marker of tumour aggressiveness in localized prostate cancer. Clin Radiol 2008; 63(7): 774-782.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crad.2008.02.001
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
25. Martin TA, Ye L, Sanders AJ, Lane J, Jiang WG. Cancer invasion and metastasis: molecular and cellular perspective. In Madame Curie Bioscience Database [Internet] 2013. Landes Bioscience.
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
26. Bissell MJ, Hines WC. Why don't we get more cancer? A proposed role of the microenvironment in restraining cancer progression. Nat Med 2011; 17(3): 320-329.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.2328
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed    PubMed Central
27. Valastyan S, Weinberg RA. Tumor metastasis: molecular insights and evolving paradigms. Cell 2011; 147(2): 275-292.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2011.09.024
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed    PubMed Central
28. Guan X. Cancer metastases: challenges and opportunities. Acta Pharm Sin 2015; 5(5): 402-418.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2015.07.005
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed    PubMed Central
29. Li DW, Liu JP, Mao YW, Xiang H, Wang J, Ma WY, Dong Z, Pike HM, Brown RE, Reed JC. Calcium-activated RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway mediates p53-dependent apoptosis and is abrogated by αB-crystallin through inhibition of RAS activation. Mol Biol Cell 2005; 16(9): 4437-4453.
https://doi.org/10.1091/mbc.e05-01-0010
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed    PubMed Central
30. Zhang H, Bajraszewski N, Wu E, Wang H, Moseman AP, Dabora SL, Griffin JD, Kwiatkowski DJ. PDGFRs are critical for PI3K/Akt activation and negatively regulated by mTOR. J Clin Invest 2007; 117(3): 730-738.
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI28984
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed    PubMed Central
31. Yang M, Abdalrahman H, Sonia U, Mohammed AI, Vestine U, Wang M, Ebadi AG, Toughani M. The application of DNA molecular markers in the study of Codonopsis species genetic variation, a review. Cell Mol Biol 2020; 66(2): 23-30.
https://doi.org/10.14715/cmb/2020.66.2.3
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
32. Yang M, Shi D, Wang Y, Ebadi AG, Toughani M. Study on Interaction of Coomassie Brilliant Blue G-250 with Bovine Serum Albumin by Multispectroscopic. Int J Pept Res Ther 2021; 27(1): 421-431.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10989-020-10096-6
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley  
33. Wen L, Zhang Y, Yang B, Han F, Ebadi AG, Toughani M. Knockdown of Angiopoietin-like protein 4 suppresses the development of colorectal cancer. Cell Mol Biol 2020; 66(5): 117-124.
https://doi.org/10.14715/cmb/2020.66.5.21
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed
34. Jamaspishvili T, Berman DM, Ross AE, Scher HI, De Marzo AM, Squire JA, Lotan TL. Clinical implications of PTEN loss in prostate cancer. Nat Rev Urol 2018; 15(4): 222.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2018.9
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed    PubMed Central
35. Abrahamsson PA. Prostate Cancer: To Treat or Not to Treat? Eur Urol Suppl 2009; 8(5): 418-423.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eursup.2009.01.007
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley   
36. Baade PD, Youlden DR, Krnjacki LJ. International epidemiology of prostate cancer: geographical distribution and secular trends. Mol Nutr Food Res 2009; 53(2): 171-184.
https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.200700511
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed   
37. Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F, Forman D, Mathers C, Parkin DM. Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008. Int J Cancer 2010; 127(12): 2893-2917.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.25516
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed   
38. Siegel R, Ward E, Brawley O, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2011: the impact of eliminating socioeconomic and racial disparities on premature cancer deaths. Cancer J Clin 2011; 61(4): 212-236.
https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.20121
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed   
39. Middleton Fillmore K, Chikritzhs T, Stockwell T, Bostrom A, Pascal R. Alcohol use and prostate cancer: a meta‐analysis. Mol Nutr Food Res 2009; 53(2): 240-255.
https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.200800122
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed   
40. Sadjadi A, Malekzadeh R, Derakhshan MH, Sepehr A, Nouraie M, Sotoudeh M, Yazdanbod A, Shokoohi B, Mashayekhi A, Arshi S, Majidpour A. Cancer occurrence in Ardabil: Results of a population‐based Cancer Registry from Iran. Int J Cancer 2003; 107(1): 113-118.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.11359
CrossRef    Google Scholar    full-text PDF    Mendeley    PubMed   
Central Asian Journal of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences Innovation
Volume 1, Issue 3
May and June 2021
Pages 143-150

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics